The Ape and the Sushi Master (Penguin Press Science) (Paperback)

Of interest perhaps to those wanting to better understand human sexual behaviour (and its variations), De Waal includes an informative chapter concerning concerning the bonobo chimpanzee ?kamasutra primates?. These are presented as a highly sociosexual species for reasons other than providing solely a male territorial imperative. Distinct from his earlier ?Chimpanzee Politics?, De Waal?s commentry here is consistent with his more recent ideas concerning reconciliation behaviour and social bonding via mutual sex in both single and mixed pairs/groups of apes. Citing the prudishness of (especially American) humans in preventing this story being more widely known (and well told in this volume, Ch.3), this bonobo chimpanzee behaviour is put forward as the most likely contender for mis-anthropomorphism since that of their chimpanzee cousin Pan troglodities? following discussions provoked by Darwin?s ?Origin of Species?.

The rather puzzling reference to sushi in the title can be explained by the inclusion of two interwoven themes appearing throughout the volume. The first is De Waal?s championing the contribution of the pioneering work of Japanese primatologists in semi-naturalistic ape colonisation studies (e.g., the longitudinal studies which claimed the cultural transmission of potato washing). The second is reference to the strict training regime of the Japanese Sushi chef, who undergoes upwards of three years of observational learning from a sushi Master Chef (human cultural transmission of fish dressing) prior to their exercising any of the skills required. Both these sets of findings (the former especially enjoyable to read from this book) bear upon another pair of terms of contention, ?learning and instinct?, but less is explicitly made of this old bone here than demands comment in review. Perhaps a comment should be made here, however, with regards De Waal?s claim for the existence of non-food related contingency rewards in Ch. 6. Although the evidence remains in a sense anecdotal, and without denying behaviours as being otherwise goal-directed, De Waal suggests that social learning is ?socially motivated?. The claim here is that ?social orientation feeds mimicry?, and for reinforcement (reward contingency), the rewards are thus simply those of social conformism (and the benefits such acceptance and ?fitting in? can provide). Perhaps an extention of ?chimpanzee Politics? after all ?

Although I really liked De Waal?s discussions of (actually attacks upon) naive cultural anthropomorphism, I look forward to seeing whether his term to describe the converse condition of being in ?anthropodenial? gains currency in the future. De Waal does make the occasional unwarranted claim himself, however, concerning the mentation and attributions of his non-human animal subjects. For example, we read that ?[animals]... have only a vague understanding of what others are doing? (p.19) and, ?We [humans] are the only animals with the concept of paternity as a basis for fatherhood? (p.73). The dangers of pursuing the types of research questions being adressed here and the need for a more empirical approach to their study are clearly evident in the production of these kinds of statements. But that is not to say that it cannot be achieved. An understanding of group dynamics should always consider the dynamics of its individual constituents, and it will always be important for us to distinguish between what a given animal DOES, from what it might be capable of thinking and knowing. In this sense, the apprentice sushi chef should certainly know a lot more than our observation of his overt behaviour might lead us to believe.

De Waal challenges the dominant view among Western researchers that animal studies must be done from a detached view. He stresses the distinction between "anthropocentrism" and "anthropomorphism." The former sharply divides humans from the remainder of the animal kingdom, holding "culture" as a unique human artefact. The second, properly applied, enables us to view all the animal kingdom in a broader scale. De Waal cites the long history of Japanese primate research and more recent Western efforts as examples of the difference. The Eastern world integrates animals within its cultures while the Western view is humanity has been given "dominion" over them. In a practical sense, this outlook gave the Japanese a head start in primate research. They consider each individual in chimpanzee troops, where Westerners only perceive the group as an entity.

As de Waal escorts us through the last half-century of primate research, he assess the contributions of each of the major figures in the field. Lorenz, Tinbergen, Desmond Morris from the West are contrasted with their Eastern counterparts. Of particular importance is Japan's Imanishi Kinji a towering figure in primatology, almost unknown here. Imanishi's outlook was a near refutation of Darwin's natural selection. Imanishi rejected the idea that animal behaviour is genetically driven and began the redefinition of "culture" based on his studies of primates. With "culture's" many restraints cast away, Japanese researchers could perceive behaviour little noted in the West.

Some of de Waal's examples are breathtaking. Animal art occupies a chapter, dominated by examples of chimpanzee attitudes while they work. Dedicated attention, care in application and possessive attitudes lead to paintings equal to Pollock's and applauded by Picasso. Pigeons turn away from Schoenberg [and who can blame them] in favour of Bach. From the obverse angle, the number of human composers who have relied on birds and other animals for inspiration range from Mozart down. The message is clear: "culture" is an aspect of the entire animal kingdom. We are but a part of a universal condition.

It's de Waal's message about animal learning that tumbles the final barricade between humans and their kin. The title of this book is derived from apprentice sushi chefs spending years merely observing a master until they can demonstrate their own abilities. In a similar manner, our ape cousins learn by watching and imitating. The young may be better at learning than the old. One community may develop new habits unseen elsewhere. Later practitioners may add improvements to style and technique. Learning, however, is not limited to "wise man." It's a trait that may be applied to any species with sufficient intellect and dexterity to demonstrate it.

De Waal's presentation challenges the entire scholarship of thinking about evolution. He will not accept the "traditional" view of human uniqueness in culture or learning capacity. Nor does he accept the more recent "selfish gene" thesis of innate adaptation traits. His balanced view will force many to rethink their ideas to arrive at a new synthesis of human and animal behaviour patterns. The book is a clear assertion that much research remains to be undertaken in improving our understanding of where evolution has led us. A provocative, thought stimulating book, yet highly readable, makes this effort worthy of the accolades it has received. [stephen a. haines - Ottawa, Canada]